⏱️ 6 min read
Medieval medicine, practiced roughly between the 5th and 15th centuries, was a fascinating blend of ancient wisdom, religious belief, and bizarre misconceptions about the human body. While we often look back at this period with a mixture of horror and amusement, medieval physicians were genuinely attempting to heal their patients with the knowledge available to them. The following strange facts reveal just how different—and sometimes shocking—medical practices were during the Middle Ages.
The Peculiar World of Medieval Medical Practices
1. Urine Was the Ultimate Diagnostic Tool
Medieval doctors placed extraordinary faith in uroscopy, the practice of diagnosing illness through urine examination. Physicians would analyze a patient’s urine by examining its color, smell, taste, and even consistency. They used special urine wheels—charts with up to twenty different colors—to match the urine sample and determine the ailment. Some doctors claimed they could diagnose everything from diabetes to lovesickness simply by inspecting a flask of urine. This practice was so central to medieval medicine that physicians were often depicted in artwork carrying a flask of urine, which became a symbol of their profession.
2. Bloodletting for Nearly Every Ailment
Based on the ancient theory of the four humors—blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile—medieval physicians believed that most illnesses resulted from an imbalance of these bodily fluids. Their solution was bloodletting, the practice of deliberately removing blood from patients. Doctors used various methods including leeches, cutting veins with lancets, or using specialized cups. Astonishingly, bloodletting was prescribed for conditions ranging from headaches and fever to mental illness and plague. Physicians even created elaborate charts showing which veins to cut based on astrological signs and the patient’s specific complaint.
3. Barbers Doubled as Surgeons
During the medieval period, there was a clear distinction between physicians and surgeons. Physicians, who had university education, considered themselves scholars and rarely performed manual procedures. Surgery was instead left to barber-surgeons, who combined haircutting with medical procedures like bloodletting, tooth extraction, and amputations. The iconic red and white striped barber pole actually originated from this practice: red represented blood, white represented bandages, and the pole itself symbolized the stick patients would grip during bloodletting. Barber-surgeons learned their trade through apprenticeships rather than formal medical education.
4. Animal Dung as Medicine
Medieval pharmacology included some truly revolting ingredients, with animal excrement being surprisingly common in remedies. Pigeon droppings were applied to baldness, dog feces were used to treat sore throats, and a mixture of chicken dung and herbs was believed to cure epilepsy. Mouse droppings were prescribed for measles, while boar’s bile mixed with goose dung was thought to help with gout. Perhaps most disturbingly, human excrement was sometimes used in poultices for wounds. These practices stemmed from the belief that like cured like, or that strong-smelling substances could drive out disease.
5. Trepanation for Headaches and Mental Illness
One of the most dramatic medieval medical procedures was trepanation—drilling or scraping holes into the skull. Medieval surgeons performed this ancient practice believing it would release evil spirits, relieve pressure, or cure conditions like epilepsy, migraines, and mental disorders. Remarkably, many patients survived this procedure, as evidenced by archaeological findings showing healed skull holes. The surgery was performed with basic tools and often without any anesthesia beyond alcohol or herbal concoctions. Some skulls show evidence of multiple trepanation procedures performed on the same individual at different times.
6. The Doctrine of Signatures Guided Treatment
Medieval herbalists followed the Doctrine of Signatures, a belief system suggesting that God marked plants with signs indicating their medicinal uses. For example, walnuts, which resemble the brain, were used to treat head ailments. Lungwort, with its lung-shaped leaves, was prescribed for respiratory problems. Yellow plants like turmeric were believed to cure jaundice, which causes yellowing of the skin. Red plants were associated with blood disorders. While this system seems absurd by modern standards, it represented an attempt to create a systematic approach to herbal medicine, and surprisingly, some of these remedies did contain beneficial properties.
7. Dead Animals as Healing Amulets
Medieval people placed great faith in amulets and charms made from dead animals or animal parts. A dried toad worn around the neck was believed to prevent plague. Dead spiders sealed in a walnut shell were thought to cure fever when worn as a pendant. Powdered unicorn horn—actually narwhal tusk or rhinoceros horn—was among the most prized and expensive remedies, believed to cure poisoning and numerous diseases. Bezoar stones, taken from the stomachs of ruminant animals, were also highly valued as antidotes to poison. The wealthy would pay enormous sums for these supposed cure-alls.
8. Cauterization With Hot Irons
Medieval surgeons routinely used red-hot irons to cauterize wounds and treat various conditions. This brutal procedure involved pressing heated metal instruments directly onto the skin to seal bleeding vessels, remove diseased tissue, or treat infections. Cauterization was also used to treat conditions we now know cannot be helped by burning, such as gout, hemorrhoids, and even insanity. The procedure was excruciatingly painful, and while it could effectively stop bleeding and sterilize wounds, it often caused severe scarring and additional complications. Surgeons carried specialized cautery irons in different shapes for different purposes.
9. Mercury as a Cure for Syphilis
When syphilis appeared in Europe in the late 15th century, mercury became the standard treatment and remained so for centuries. Patients were subjected to mercury vapor baths, mercury ointments, or even mercury injections. The toxic metal caused terrible side effects including tooth loss, brain damage, kidney failure, and death. The treatment was so harsh that a common saying emerged: “A night with Venus, a lifetime with Mercury.” Despite its dangers, mercury treatment persisted because it sometimes appeared to work by temporarily suppressing symptoms. In reality, patients were being poisoned by both the disease and the cure.
10. Theriac: The Cure-All With Bizarre Ingredients
Theriac was the medieval world’s most famous cure-all, a complex concoction originally developed in ancient times but refined throughout the Middle Ages. Recipes contained anywhere from 60 to 100 ingredients, including viper flesh, opium, cinnamon, myrrh, and numerous herbs. The mixture had to age for years before use and was incredibly expensive. Theriac was prescribed for everything from plague to poisoning to general poor health. The production of theriac was a major public event in some cities, with apothecaries preparing it in town squares to prove they were using genuine ingredients. While essentially useless for most conditions, the opium content did provide some pain relief.
Understanding Medieval Medicine in Context
While these medieval medical practices seem strange and often horrifying by modern standards, they represented humanity’s earnest attempts to understand and treat disease with limited scientific knowledge. Medieval physicians worked without microscopes, germ theory, or anatomical understanding, relying instead on ancient texts, religious doctrine, and observable symptoms. Some treatments, like certain herbal remedies, actually contained beneficial compounds, while others caused more harm than good. This period in medical history reminds us how far medicine has advanced and how much we owe to the scientific method, evidence-based practice, and centuries of accumulated knowledge that inform modern healthcare.